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Unit 8 b The international Language
of Gestures
Paul Ekman, Wallace V. Friesen, and John Bear
On his first trip to Naples, a well-meaning American tourist thanks his waiter for a good meal well-served by making the "A-Okay" gesture with his thumb and forefinger2.
The waiter pales and heads for the manager. They seriously discuss calling the police and having the hapless tourist arrested for obscene and offensive public behavior.
What happened?
Most travelers wouldn’t think of leaving home without a phrase book of some kind, enough of a guide to help them say and understand "Ja," "Nein," "Grazie" and "Ou setrouvent les toilettes?" And yet, while most people are aware that gestures are the most common form of cross-cultural communication, they don't realize that the language of gestures can be just as different, just as regional and just as likely to cause misunderstanding as the spoken word.
Consider our puzzled tourist. The thumb-and-forefinger-in-a-circle gesture, a friendly one in America, has an insulting meaning in France and Belgium:" You're worth zero," while in Greece and Turkey it is an insulting or vulgar sexual invitation.
There are, in fact, dozens of gestures that take on totally different meaning as you move from one country or region to another. Is "thumbs up" always a positive gesture? Absolutely not. Dose nodding the head up and down always mean "Yes"? No!
To make matters even more confusing, many hand movements have no meaning at all, in any country. If you watch television with the sound turned off, or observe a conversation at a distance, you become aware of almost constant motion, especially with the hands and arms. People wave their arms, they shrug3, they waggle their fingers, they point, they scratch their chests, they pick their noses.
These various activities can be divided into three major categories: manipulators, emblems5, and illustrators.
In a manipulator, one part of the body, usually the hands, rubs, picks, squeezes, cleans or otherwise grooms6 some other part. There movements have no specific meaning. Manipulators generally increase when people become uncomfortable or occasionally when they are totally relaxed.
An emblem4 is a physical act that can fully7 take the place of words. Nodding the head up and down in many cultures is a substitute for saying, “Yes.” Raising the shoulders and turning the palms upward clearly means “I don’t know,” or “I’m not sure.”
Illustrators are physical acts that help explain what is being said but have no meaning on their own. Waving the arms, raising or lowering the eyebrows8, snapping the fingers and pounding the table may enhance or explain the words that accompany them, but they cannot stand alone. People sometimes use illustrators as a pantomime or charade9, especially when they can’t think of the right words, or when it’s simply easier to illustrate10, as in defining “zigzag” or to explaining how to tie a shoe.
Thus the same illustrator might accompany a positive statement one moment and a negative one the text. This is not the case with emblems, which have the same precise meaning on all occasions for all members of a group, class, culture or subculture.
Emblems are used consciously. The user knows what they mean, unless, of course, he uses them inadvertently. When nelson Rockefeller raised his middle finger to a heckler, he knew exactly what the gesture meant, and he believed that the person he was communicating with knew as well.
The three of us are working on a dictionary of members. … In looking for members, we found that it isn’t productive simply to observe people communicating with each other, because emblems are used only occasionally. And asking people to describe or identify emblems that are important in their culture is even less productive. Even when we explain the correct the concept clearly, most people find it difficult to recognize and analyze11 their own communication behaviour this way.
Instead, we developed a research procedure that enabled us to identify emblems in cultures as diverse as those of urban Japanese, white, middle-class Americans, the preliterate South Fore1 people of Papua, natives of New Guinea, Iranians, Israelis and the inhabitants of London, Madrid, Paris, Frankfurt and Rome. The procedure involves three steps.
Give a group of people from the same cultural background a series of phrases and ask if they have a gesture or facial expression for each phrase: “what time is it?” “He’s a homosexual.” “That’s good.” “yes.” And so on. We find that normally, after 10 to 15 people have provided responses, we have catalogued the great majority of the emblems of their culture.
Analyze the results. If most of the people cannot supply a “performance” for a verbal message, we discard it.
Study the remaining performances further to eliminate inventions and illustrators. Many people are so eager to please that they will invent a gesture on the spot. Americans asked for gesture for “sawing wood” could certainly oblige, even if they had never considered the request before, but the arm motion they would provide would not be and emblem.
To weed out these “false emblems,” we show other people from the same culture videotapes of the performances by the first group. We ask which are inventions, which are pantomimes and which are symbolic12 gestures that they have seen before or used themselves. We also ask the people to give us their own meanings for each performance.
The gestures remaining after this second round of interpretations13 are likely to be the emblems of that particular culture. Using this procedure, we have found three types of emblems:
First, popular emblems have the same or similar meanings in several culture but one elsewhere.
Surprisingly, there seem to be no uniquely American emblems, although other countries provide many examples. For instance, the French gesture of putting one’s fist around the tip of the nose and twisting it to signify, “he’s drunk,” is not used elsewhere. The German “good luck” emblem, making two fists with the thumbs inside and pounding an imaginary table, is unique to that culture.
Finally, multi-meaning emblems have one meaning in one culture and a totally different meaning in another. The thumb inserted between the index and third fingers is an invitation to have sex in Germany, Holland and Denmark, but in Portugal and Brazil it is a wish for good luck or protection.
The number of emblems in use varies considerably14 among cultures, from fewer than 60 in the United States to more than 250 in Israel. The differences is understandable, since Israel is composes of recent immigrants from many countries, most of which have their own large emblem vocabularies. In addition, since emblems are helpful in military operations where silence is essential, and all Israelis serve in the armed forces, military service provides both the opportunity and need to learn new emblems.
The kind of emblems used, as well as the number, varies considerably from culture to culture. Some are especially heavy on insults, for instance, while others have a large number of emblems for hunger or sex.
Finally, as Desmond Morris documented in his book, gestures, there are significant regional variations in modern cultures. The findings we describe in this article apply to people in the major urban areas of each country: London, not England as a whole; Paris, not France. Because of the pervasiveness15 of travel and television, however, and emblem is often known in the countryside even if it is not used there.
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fore
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| adv.在前面；adj.先前的；在前部的；n.前部 | |
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forefinger
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| n.食指 | |
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shrug
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| v.耸肩(表示怀疑、冷漠、不知等) | |
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emblem
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| n.象征，标志；徽章 | |
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emblems
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| n.象征，标记( emblem的名词复数 ) | |
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grooms
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| n.新郎( groom的名词复数 )；马夫v.照料或梳洗（马等）( groom的第三人称单数 )；使做好准备；训练；（给动物）擦洗 | |
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fully
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| adv.完全地，全部地，彻底地；充分地 | |
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eyebrows
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| 眉毛( eyebrow的名词复数 ) | |
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charade
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| n.用动作等表演文字意义的字谜游戏 | |
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illustrate
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| v.举例说明，阐明；图解，加插图 | |
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analyze
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| vt.分析，解析 (=analyse) | |
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symbolic
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| adj.象征性的，符号的，象征主义的 | |
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interpretations
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| n.解释( interpretation的名词复数 )；表演；演绎；理解 | |
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considerably
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| adv.极大地；相当大地；在很大程度上 | |
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pervasiveness
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| n.无处不在，遍布 | |
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