经济学人306:手的进化 拳头的演化

 　　Science and technology

　　科学技术

　　The evolution of the hand

　　手的进化

　　Making a fist of it

　　拳头的演化

　　How a dual-use bodily structure came into existence

　　人手的双重功能如何生成

　　THE appendage¹ at the end of a human being's arm is a strange organ.

　　与人类手臂相连的手掌是一个奇特的部位，也是人类唯一因不同用途而拥有不同名称的部位。

　　It is the only one that has different names, depending on what it is being used for. Employ it to hold something, and it is called a hand. Employ it to hit someone, and it is called a fist.

　　拿物体，我们称之为手；攻击人，我们称之为拳头。

　　That second use, though, is almost unknown in other primates³.

　　而几乎所有的灵长类动物极少使用拳头攻击。

　　Most primate² hands are long of palm and finger, short of thumb, and suited for climbing.

　　大多数灵长类动物的手是手掌宽大、手指较长和大拇指较短，这一结构有利于攀爬。

　　Human hands have short palms, short fingers and long thumbs, which are not.

　　人类的手是手掌短小、手指适中和大拇指较长，这一结构不利于攀爬，

　　These proportions do, though, make it possible to grip things in two ways that other apes' hands cannot manage well.

　　然而，手的这种比例结构使得人类比其它灵长类动物更擅长于抓取物体，抓取有两种方式，

　　One is by using what is known as a precision grip, in which an object is held between the pads of the finger tips and the pad of the thumb.

　　一是精确握法，使用大拇指指尖与其它手指指尖抓紧一物体；

　　The other is by means of a power grip, in which all the fingers and the thumb are wrapped around what is being grasped.

　　另一种方式是力量握法，包括大拇指在内的所有手指把一物体紧紧包住。

　　These two grips are crucial to Homo sapiens's characteristic tool-crafting skills, and it has thus long been thought that the widespread use of tools by humanity's ancestors was the driving force behind the modern hand's proportions.

　　以上两种握法是智人在使用工具上的关键特征，因此，长期以来人们认为人类的祖先广泛使用工具是驱使人类手部结构进化的推动力。

　　No doubt that was important. But a study just published in the Journal of Experimental Biology by Michael Morgan and David Carrier of the University of Utah has shown that the exact geometry of the hand is probably the result of its destructive rather than its constructive⁴ power.

　　毋庸置疑，广泛使用工具对人手的进化起到了重要的作用，但是，由犹他大学的生物学家迈克尔摩根与戴维卡里尔合作完成，并在最近刊登在《实验生物学杂志》的一篇论文里写道，人类手部的精确几何结构可能是破坏性力量导致的结果，非建设性力量导致的结果。

　　Most natural weapons are obvious: teeth, claws, antlers, horns.

　　诸如牙齿、爪子、鹿角、牛/羊角等大多数的天然武器是很直观的。

　　But the hand becomes a weapon only when it turns into a fist.

　　而手只有在变成拳头的时候才成为武器。

　　Dr Morgan and Dr Carrier therefore studied its anatomy⁵ to try to find out what makes the fist such an effective weapon—one which, like the precision and power grips, the hand of even a chimpanzee is incapable⁷ of forming properly.

　　所以，摩根与卡里尔两位教授想通过解剖学来揭开拳头成为有效武器的之谜，其中包括连黑猩猩都做不到的精确握法与力量握法。

　　Part of the reason is obvious.

　　有一点是很明显的：

　　A fist presents the knuckles⁹ first.

　　拳头是关节往外凸，

　　That means the force of a blow is transmitted through a much smaller area than would be the case for its alternative, an open-handed slap.

　　这意味着击打的接触面比掌击的接触面要小。

　　But the two researchers suspected that there might be more to it than that, so they dug a little deeper.

　　但两位教授认为原因不仅仅如此，于是，他们进一步深入研究。

　　First, they gathered some basic measurements.

　　首先，摩根与卡里尔两位教授收集了一些基本的测量数据。

　　They asked ten athletes—a mixture of boxers¹⁰ and martial¹¹ artists—to strike a punch bag as hard as they could using either a normal fist or an open palm.

　　他们邀请了十位运动员，包括拳击手和格斗选手，要求他们用尽全力用拳头打沙袋或者掌击沙袋。

　　The athletes did so in many ways, including forward strikes, side strikes and overhead attacks, and Dr Morgan and Dr Carrier monitored how much force was delivered in each case using an accelerometer attached to the bag.

　　十位运动员以冲拳、测拳和高拳等方式击打沙袋。通过在沙袋上捆绑的加速计，两位教授监控到使用拳头打击或掌击在不同的击打方式下的力度。

　　They also used a series of pistons¹² to measure the stiffness of different hand shapes.

　　除此之外，两位教授还使用了一系列的活塞来测量选手击打时手的不同姿势的硬度。

　　These included a fully¹³ clenched¹⁴ fist, a semi-fist with the fingers curled up but the thumb pointed¹⁵ outwards¹⁶, and a poorly formed fist in which the fingers were folded over the palm and the thumb pointed outwards.

　　这些姿势包括全握拳头、半握拳头以及虚拳。

　　As the athletes formed these various fists and fist-like shapes, the pistons measured the rigidity¹⁸ of their hands along the knuckle⁸ bones.

　　从选手摆出手型准备出击到完成击打，活塞测量了他们手指关节的硬度。

　　Though the accelerometer in the punch bag suggested that a sideswipe made with a closed fist delivers 15% more force than an open-handed strike, a frontal attack with either produces about the same force.

　　尽管在沙袋里的加速计的数据显示，拳击的近距离侧击比掌击能传递多15%的能量到沙袋上，但正面攻击沙袋时，无论是拳击还是掌击，传递到沙袋上的能量都差不多。

　　The fist's advantage thus seems to be mainly in its geometry rather than it mode of delivery.

　　由此看来，拳头的优势是得益于几何学而不是能量传递的方式。

　　Part of that advantage does, indeed, come from the small surface area of the knuckles.

　　拳头的指关节面积小，这是一个优势。

　　But the killer¹⁹ app, almost literally²⁰, is the stiffness imparted by the way the bones are arranged in a properly formed fist.

　　理论上，拳头的硬度源于手指骨组合方式的完美性。

　　This allows the force of a punch to be delivered with an effect that can, for the receiver, be bone breaking.

　　这样，力量能够以有效的方式传递至目标而不至于使手指骨断裂。

　　Two things are crucial.

　　有两个因素很关键。

　　One is the way the fingers curl back on themselves, which leaves no empty space inside the fist.

　　一个是握拳时手指紧密地弯曲，中间不留任何空隙，

　　That is a product of the precise lengths of the component²¹ bones of each finger, which is one reason a chimpanzee cannot form a proper fist.

　　这可是每根手指骨以精确的尺寸构建的产物，这是黑猩猩的手无法做到的。

　　The other is the buttressing²² role of the thumb, which adds yet further stiffness.

　　另外一个因素是大拇指的支撑作用使得拳头更加坚硬。

　　Again, this requires the thumb to be of precisely²³ the right length, and to originate in precisely the right place at the side of the palm.

　　当然，大拇指的精确尺寸以及所处的位置两者相结合才能使之完美地发挥了作用。

　　In combination, Dr Morgan and Dr Carrier's machine indicted²⁴, these features make a properly formed fist almost four times as rigid¹⁷ as a chimpanzee-style fist—for when a chimp⁶ curls its fingers up it leaves a gap through the middle of the fist, fatally weakening the structure; and the thumb plays no buttressing role.

　　摩根与卡里尔两位教授综合利用了测量出的各种数据，他们认为正是以上所描述的两种因素让人拳头的硬度是黑猩猩拳头硬度的四倍，当黑猩猩的手握成一个拳头时，牠弯曲的手指中有一个空隙，这是一个致命性的缺陷，而且灵长类动物的大拇指也不起到支撑拳头的作用。

　　All this suggests that fists are indeed proper evolutionary²⁵ adaptations, with their own history of natural selection, rather than being just the coincidental by-products of humanity's handiness with a tool.

　　综上所述，人手之所以能形成拳头是大自然物竞天择的结果，而不是人类碰巧使用工具所进化的副产品。

　　In fact, it is probably easier for the gripping role of the hand to adjust to the geometrical requirements of the punching role of the fist than the other way round.

　　实际上，很可能人手的抓取功能是为了适应拳头的几何结构而进化过来的，而不是抓取功能的副产品。

　　Which makes perfect sense, for it has long been the case that the species is divided between those who prosper²⁶ by making things with their hands, and those who rely on their fists, or the threat of them, to take what the makers²⁷ have made.

　　这就说明了，在很长一段时间里，物种之间的差异是根据使用手的不同方式开始，一些使用双手制造物品、一些利用拳头自我保护或者使用武力抢夺前者所制造的物品。

　　1.come into 进入；加入

　　We don't really know where Hortense comes into all this...

　　我们真的不清楚霍滕斯在这中间起什么作用。

　　It's an unrestricted journey, and rules of any sort don't come into it.

　　这是一次没有任何限制的旅行，所有的规则都不起作用。

　　2.suit for 相适合

　　She says she plans to respond with a suit for sexual discrimination.

　　她说，她准备提起性别歧视的诉讼。

　　I needed my suit for the next morning, not folksy aphorisms²⁸ or your musings on why the caged bird sings.

　　明天一早，我要的是我的西装而不是那些和颜悦色的人生格言或者阁下有关笼中鸟为何唱歌的沉思。

　　3.possible to 可能的

　　It isn't possible to verify his allegations.

　　他的这些说法是不可能核实的。

　　It is still possible to eat tofu in long-established restaurants in kyoto.

　　现在你依然可以在京都历史悠久的餐馆里吃豆腐。

　　4.driving force 动力

　　The advanced countries are no longer the global driving force: they are importing inflation.

　　发达国家已不再是全球经济发展的动力：它们在进口通胀。

　　In part that was because counter-terrorism had become the driving force for the washington security establishment.

　　从某种程度上说，反恐怖主义是华盛顿建立安全体系的源动力。

1 appendage   

n.附加物

参考例句：

• After their work,the calculus was no longer an appendage and extension of Greek geometry.经过他们的工作，微积分不再是古希腊几何的附庸和延展。
• Macmillan must have loathed being judged as a mere appendage to domestic politics.麦克米伦肯定极不喜欢只被当成国内政治的附属品。

2 primate   

n.灵长类（目）动物，首席主教；adj.首要的

参考例句：

• 14 percent of primate species are highly endangered.14%的灵长类物种处于高度濒危状态。
• The woolly spider monkey is the largest primate in the Americas.绒毛蛛猴是美洲最大的灵长类动物。

3 primates   

primate的复数

参考例句：

• Primates are alert, inquisitive animals. 灵长目动物是机灵、好奇的动物。
• Consciousness or cerebration has been said to have emerged in the evolution of higher primates. 据说意识或思考在较高级灵长类的进化中已出现。

4 constructive   

adj.建设的，建设性的

参考例句：

• We welcome constructive criticism.我们乐意接受有建设性的批评。
• He is beginning to deal with his anger in a constructive way.他开始用建设性的方法处理自己的怒气。

5 anatomy   

n.解剖学，解剖；功能，结构，组织

参考例句：

• He found out a great deal about the anatomy of animals.在动物解剖学方面，他有过许多发现。
• The hurricane's anatomy was powerful and complex.对飓风的剖析是一项庞大而复杂的工作。

6 chimp   

n.黑猩猩

参考例句：

• In fact,the color of gorilla and chimp are light-color.其实大猩猩和黑猩猩的肤色是较为浅的。
• The chimp is the champ.猩猩是冠军。

7 incapable   

adj.无能力的，不能做某事的

参考例句：

• He would be incapable of committing such a cruel deed.他不会做出这么残忍的事。
• Computers are incapable of creative thought.计算机不会创造性地思维。

8 knuckle   

n.指节；vi.开始努力工作；屈服，认输

参考例句：

• They refused to knuckle under to any pressure.他们拒不屈从任何压力。
• You'll really have to knuckle down if you want to pass the examination.如果想通过考试，你确实应专心学习。

9 knuckles   

n.（指人）指关节( knuckle的名词复数 )；（指动物）膝关节，踝v.（指人）指关节( knuckle的第三人称单数 )；（指动物）膝关节，踝

参考例句：

• He gripped the wheel until his knuckles whitened. 他紧紧握住方向盘，握得指关节都变白了。
• Her thin hands were twisted by swollen knuckles. 她那双纤手因肿大的指关节而变了形。 来自《简明英汉词典》

10 boxers   

n.拳击短裤；（尤指职业）拳击手( boxer的名词复数 )；拳师狗

参考例句：

• The boxers were goaded on by the shrieking crowd. 拳击运动员听见观众的喊叫就来劲儿了。 来自《简明英汉词典》
• The boxers slugged it out to the finish. 两名拳击手最后决出了胜负。 来自《简明英汉词典》

11 martial   

adj.战争的，军事的，尚武的，威武的

参考例句：

• The sound of martial music is always inspiring.军乐声总是鼓舞人心的。
• The officer was convicted of desertion at a court martial.这名军官在军事法庭上被判犯了擅离职守罪。

12 pistons   

活塞( piston的名词复数 )

参考例句：

• Some pistons have seating rings of metal or leather. 有些活塞上有金属或皮革的密封环。
• A pump uses valves and pistons. 泵使用阀和活塞。

13 fully   

adv.完全地，全部地，彻底地；充分地

参考例句：

• The doctor asked me to breathe in,then to breathe out fully.医生让我先吸气，然后全部呼出。
• They soon became fully integrated into the local community.他们很快就完全融入了当地人的圈子。

14 clenched   

v.紧握，抓紧，咬紧( clench的过去式和过去分词 )

参考例句：

• He clenched his fists in anger. 他愤怒地攥紧了拳头。
• She clenched her hands in her lap to hide their trembling. 她攥紧双手放在腿上，以掩饰其颤抖。 来自《简明英汉词典》

15 pointed   

adj.尖的，直截了当的

参考例句：

• He gave me a very sharp pointed pencil.他给我一支削得非常尖的铅笔。
• She wished to show Mrs.John Dashwood by this pointed invitation to her brother.她想通过对达茨伍德夫人提出直截了当的邀请向她的哥哥表示出来。

16 outwards   

adj.外面的，公开的，向外的；adv.向外；n.外形

参考例句：

• Does this door open inwards or outwards?这门朝里开还是朝外开？
• In lapping up a fur,they always put the inner side outwards.卷毛皮时，他们总是让内层朝外。

17 rigid   

adj.严格的，死板的；刚硬的，僵硬的

参考例句：

• She became as rigid as adamant.她变得如顽石般的固执。
• The examination was so rigid that nearly all aspirants were ruled out.考试很严，几乎所有的考生都被淘汰了。

18 rigidity   

adj.钢性，坚硬

参考例句：

• The rigidity of the metal caused it to crack.这金属因刚度强而产生裂纹。
• He deplored the rigidity of her views.他痛感她的观点僵化。

19 killer   

n.杀人者，杀人犯，杀手，屠杀者

参考例句：

• Heart attacks have become Britain's No.1 killer disease.心脏病已成为英国的头号致命疾病。
• The bulk of the evidence points to him as her killer.大量证据证明是他杀死她的。

20 literally   

adv.照字面意义，逐字地；确实

参考例句：

• He translated the passage literally.他逐字逐句地翻译这段文字。
• Sometimes she would not sit down till she was literally faint.有时候，她不走到真正要昏厥了，决不肯坐下来。

21 component   

n.组成部分，成分，元件；adj.组成的，合成的

参考例句：

• Each component is carefully checked before assembly.每个零件在装配前都经过仔细检查。
• Blade and handle are the component parts of a knife.刀身和刀柄是一把刀的组成部分。

22 buttressing   

v.用扶壁支撑，加固( buttress的现在分词 )

参考例句：

• This way of asset-pricing lacks buttressing by solid theory. 这一资产定价方法缺乏扎实的理论根基。 来自互联网

23 precisely   

adv.恰好，正好，精确地，细致地

参考例句：

• It's precisely that sort of slick sales-talk that I mistrust.我不相信的正是那种油腔滑调的推销宣传。
• The man adjusted very precisely.那个人调得很准。

24 indicted   

控告，起诉( indict的过去式和过去分词 )

参考例句：

• The senator was indicted for murder. 那位参议员被控犯谋杀罪。
• He was indicted by a grand jury on two counts of murder. 他被大陪审团以两项谋杀罪名起诉。

25 evolutionary   

adj.进化的；演化的，演变的；[生]进化论的

参考例句：

• Life has its own evolutionary process.生命有其自身的进化过程。
• These are fascinating questions to be resolved by the evolutionary studies of plants.这些十分吸引人的问题将在研究植物进化过程中得以解决。

26 prosper   

v.成功，兴隆，昌盛；使成功，使昌隆，繁荣

参考例句：

• With her at the wheel,the company began to prosper.有了她当主管，公司开始兴旺起来。
• It is my earnest wish that this company will continue to prosper.我真诚希望这家公司会继续兴旺发达。

27 makers   

n.制造者，制造商（maker的复数形式）

参考例句：

• The makers of the product assured us that there had been no sacrifice of quality. 这一产品的制造商向我们保证说他们没有牺牲质量。
• The makers are about to launch out a new product. 制造商们马上要生产一种新产品。 来自《简明英汉词典》

28 aphorisms   

格言，警句( aphorism的名词复数 )

参考例句：

• He formulated trenchant aphorisms that caught their attention. 他阐述的鲜明格言引起了人们的注意。
• The aphorisms started following like water as all the old cliches got dusted off. 一些陈词滥调象尘土一样扬起，一些格言警句象洪水一样到处泛滥。