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美国国家公共电台 NPR Outbreak

时间:2019-05-05 08:20来源:互联网 提供网友:nan   字体: [ ]
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    (单词翻译:双击或拖选)

 

RUND ABDELFATAH, HOST:

Hey everyone. It's Rund and Ramtin here. And before we jump into the show, we want to address something a lot of you have been tweeting at us about.

RAMTIN ARABLOUEI, HOST:

So NPR made a change to its Web servers that no one expected to have any effect on podcasts. Clearly, that was wrong. It forced a bunch of episodes into NPR podcast feeds, resulting in downloads that you didn't ask for.

ABDELFATAH: It also made it hard or even impossible for you to find and listen to your favorite NPR podcasts. For that, we are truly sorry.

ARABLOUEI: NPR technical folks fixed1 the root cause of the problem shortly after they discovered it, but it took a while for that fix to make it into all the podcast apps.

ABDELFATAH: If you unsubscribed from this show or any other NPR show, please take a minute to resubscribe.

ARABLOUEI: And if you're still having problems, please go to npr.org/help. We are taking steps to make sure nothing like this ever happens again.

ABDELFATAH: Thanks for listening. And now, onto the show.

(SOUNDBITE OF NEWS MONTAGE)

LESTER HOLT: Tonight, America on track for its worst measles2 outbreak in 25 years.

ANNE-MARIE GREEN: The CDC says the number of measles cases being reported is close to the danger zone.

TONY DOKOUPIL: This Orthodox Jewish section of Williamsburg, Brooklyn, is ground zero, where some 250 measles cases have been confirmed.

HOLT: Ninety more cases in just one week.

NORAH O'DONNELL: Seventy-one students, 127 staff.

KRISTEN DAHLGREN: The latest outbreaks are highlighting pockets of unvaccinated people. And health officials are scrambling5 to stop the nationwide spread.

HERMINIA PALACIO: This anti-vaxx movement has proven to be very dangerous.

HOLT: Public health officials doing all they can to urge Americans to vaccinate3 their children.

(SOUNDBITE OF MUSIC)

ABDELFATAH: You're listening to THROUGHLINE from NPR.

ARABLOUEI: Where we go back in time...

ABDELFATAH: To understand the present.

ARABLOUEI: Hey, I'm Ramtin Arablouei.

ABDELFATAH: I'm Rund Abdelfatah.

ARABLOUEI: And on this episode, the question of vaccinations7.

(SOUNDBITE OF MUSIC)

ABDELFATAH: Back in 2000, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, or CDC, officially declared that measles had been eliminated. But now, according to the CDC, we're in the midst of the biggest outbreak of measles since that declaration. So what's going on?

ARABLOUEI: Well, public health officials have linked many of the recent outbreaks to people who have become infected while traveling abroad. But the question is - why has the infection been able to spread so widely, especially among American children?

(SOUNDBITE OF ARCHIVED RECORDING)

NANCY MESSONNIER: I do believe that parents' concerns about vaccine8 leads to under-vaccination6. And most of the cases that we're seeing are in unvaccinated communities. However...

ABDELFATAH: That's a CDC official testifying before Congress in February. And basically, what she's saying is that people weren't getting their kids vaccinated4 because they were scared of vaccines9. And in response to one outbreak in Brooklyn...

(SOUNDBITE OF PRESS CONFERENCE)

BILL DE BLASIO: We have a situation now where children are in danger. We have to take this seriously.

ABDELFATAH: ...The city of New York recently declared a public health emergency...

(SOUNDBITE OF NEWS REPORT)

ELAINE QUIJANO: The city is mandating10 vaccinations for adults and children exposed to the virus.

ABDELFATAH: ...Requiring unvaccinated people to get vaccinated or face a fine.

ARABLOUEI: For more than a century, authorities have been trying to use vaccinations as a way of protecting public health. And for just as long, some people have resisted. So we wanted to know, when in American history have these two sides collided? And we found a Supreme11 Court case from 1905 that dealt with this tension and that New York officials are drawing on today.

ABDELFATAH: The case highlights just how similar things were back in the early 20th century. To find out more about that case...

MICHAEL WILLRICH: I'm here, yep.

ABDELFATAH: We called up this guy...

WILLRICH: So it's Ramtin and Rund?

ABDELFATAH: Yes.

ARABLOUEI: Correct. Perfect.

WILLRICH: OK. Want to make sure I pronounce it correctly.

ABDELFATAH: ...Michael Willrich.

WILLRICH: My name's Michael Willrich. I teach history at Brandeis University. And I'm the author of a book called "Pox: An American History."

ARABLOUEI: Willrich says that when New York set penalties to enforce vaccinations in Brooklyn, they were relying on a 1905 case of a Swedish Lutheran minister in Cambridge, Mass. Here's the context. A few years earlier, there was an outbreak of smallpox12 in a bunch of U.S. cities, including Cambridge, so public health officials ordered all residents to be vaccinated. This Swedish minister, Henning Jacobson...

WILLRICH: He refused. He had been vaccinated as a child back in his home country of Sweden and had been made very sick by the vaccine. And then after he had arrived in the U.S. and had a family, one of his sons had also been sick following vaccination. And he thought that vaccination was a threat to him.

And so he declined to be vaccinated. He was brought before a local criminal court and found guilty, was fined a pretty nominal13 amount. I believe it was $5. But then he, with the support of the local anti-vaccination movement, brought his appeal to the state Supreme Court and then all the way up to the U.S. Supreme Court.

ABDELFATAH: All right. So this whole epidemic14 must have been pretty bad that health officials, you know, decided15 to make these vaccinations mandatory16 and enforce them.

WILLRICH: Yeah. Yeah. So the larger context for this was a period in which smallpox was very much present in the United States. Smallpox is an extremely deadly disease. Historically, it killed about a quarter to a third of the people who became infected with it.

ABDELFATAH: Wow.

WILLRICH: Three hundred million people worldwide died from smallpox in the 20th century alone. And there had been an effective vaccine against smallpox since the late 18th century, the original vaccine. So you have a situation with significant danger to society and a solution. And what does the government do while it tries to stamp out the epidemic by compelling everybody to be vaccinated? But these circumstances were extremely contentious17.

ARABLOUEI: What do you mean by contentious?

WILLRICH: People had serious doubts that vaccines worked. Some people thought that compulsory18 vaccination was a violation19 of fundamental American liberties grounded in the common law and the Constitution and just natural rights. Other people felt that compulsory vaccination was a hoax20 being perpetrated by vaccine manufacturers themselves and compliant21 state legislatures and public health officials inflicted22 on society for commercial gain.

Other folks had really basic resistance to it because even an effective smallpox vaccination could make you feel sick or have your arms swell23 up for a few days. People lost days at work at a time when there was no workers' compensation laws. So there was really significant resistance at the time, not just from parents, as you have today, but also working-class people. And compulsory vaccination was carried out with great force in immigrant working-class communities and in particularly in African American communities. I found some cases in the South where African Americans were vaccinated at gunpoint.

ARABLOUEI: Wow.

WILLRICH: So...

ABDELFATAH: What?

ARABLOUEI: ...It's a really dramatic set of conflicts in which Jacobson's case arose.

ABDELFATAH: It's interesting because it seems like the fear around vaccines became sort of mixed in with the fear around outsiders, immigrants. In particular, I'm thinking of the late 1800s, early 1900s - a little bit before this case happened. I read that Chinese communities in California were particularly targeted for vaccinations. I'm wondering if you could speak to that a little.

WILLRICH: Yeah. So the Chinese community, particularly in San Francisco in now what uses the term Chinatown, that community was defined as much by public health officials as by anything else as a community of disease. And so when bubonic plague broke out in San Francisco in the very early 20th century, the response of the health authorities was to quarantine Chinatown from the rest of the city and to order that the people there be vaccinated with this very controversial, relatively24 new vaccine at the time called the Haffkine prophylactic25.

And if a Chinese resident of that community wanted to leave at any point, they had to show evidence that they had been vaccinated. Some complied, and some were made sick by the prophylactic. This was a community with a really strong sense of rights consciousness that was forged by the fact that they were so discriminated26 against in California in the late 19th century. And so they actually sued in federal court saying that this was a violation of the 14th Amendment's equal protection clause.

And remarkably27, the federal court said that's correct - that you can't, without any legitimate28 scientific basis, require people just because of their membership in a, quote, unquote, "race" to be vaccinated where the rest of the community was not required to be. So they established through this important case precedent29 for equal protection rights in public health - very important.

(SOUNDBITE OF MUSIC)

ABDELFATAH: So all this was swirling30 around when Jacobson's case went before the Supreme Court. And when we come back, we'll find out what the decision was.

(SOUNDBITE OF MUSIC)

ARABLOUEI: So in 1905, Jacobson was making the argument that he shouldn't have to get vaccinated because vaccines could cause him harm. And actually, at that time, there was some truth to that.

WILLRICH: Vaccines - at the time, the basic technology had been proven. Vaccines were quite effective. A routine vaccination caused discomfort31. But in some instances that were very well recorded at the time, vaccines were associated with serious illness and even death. The worst episode occurred in Camden, N.J., in 1901, 1902, during these same epidemics32. There was a serious epidemic of smallpox in that community.

And local health officials ordered all school children to get vaccinated before entering the schools. And this was carried out with considerable efficiency and using mainly this particular vaccine manufactured across the river in Philadelphia. And in due course, nine children who had recently been vaccinated died of tetanus. In my own research, I became pretty convinced - as many were at the time - that, in fact, the vaccine had been the vehicle for spreading tetanus among these children. So it was a great sort of - and very publicly aired tragedy.

ABDELFATAH: So people kind of had some reason to be concerned - right? - about the health side effects of vaccines. But in the Jacobson case, like, what were they arguing besides health concerns?

WILLRICH: You know, it's really interesting because Jacobson was making - and his lawyers were making a really well-positioned argument about individual liberty at a time when individual liberty arguments were being quite successful in the courts as people resisting economic regulations of all sorts - such as hours laws limiting the number of hours a worker could be required to work in a factory or wage laws or safety regulations and so on - were being challenged by employers and sometimes by individuals for violating individual property rights and liberty of contract and that kind of thing.

And so Jacobson's lawyers were making this case that - here goes the state again, you know, trying to be paternalistic and violating individual rights with no reasonable grounds. And they're citing all those other cases I just referred to.

ABDELFATAH: And was Jacobson just, like, a lone-wolf kind of person, or was there an anti-vax movement going on at the time that he was a part of?

WILLRICH: So there was an anti-vaccination movement that was actually a trans-Atlantic movement with significant levels of communication across the Atlantic to England, in particular. England had a very well-developed anti-vaccination movement in the late 1890s. And they were so successful politically that they actually persuaded Parliament to put a - an exemption33 in the law in 1898 for, quote, unquote, "conscientious34 objectors." And this was actually the first use of that term in the political lexicon35. We think of conscientious objection associated with conscription, of the draft. But in fact, it originated in the anti-vaccination movement.

And then in Massachusetts, which was a real hotbed of anti-vaccination sentiment, the Massachusetts Anti-Compulsory Vaccination Society tried to use the State House to pass laws banning compulsory vaccination. And with that having failed, they looked for a good test case and found it in Jacobson. So his case was funded and litigated by this Massachusetts organization.

ARABLOUEI: Right. So like, it's obviously bigger than just Jacobson, just one person. But what's at stake when the case finally reaches the Supreme Court?

WILLRICH: It raised - or it gave the court an opportunity for the first time to consider whether or not it was constitutional for a state government to order individuals to get vaccinated, whether they wanted to or not, and to subject them to criminal penalties, to liabilities of various sorts, if they refused to be vaccinated. And the court resoundingly decided in favor of the power of the government to order vaccination.

ABDELFATAH: Why did they think that this issue - smallpox, public health issue - was too important to even allow for kind of individual liberties to win out?

WILLRICH: Yeah. Well, the old argument - and this goes back well before Jacobson- about public health was that the power of the state, the power of the government, to use its police powers to protect the public health had the same basic origin in government power, government sovereignty as did the right of the state to protect the population from an invasion - military invasion.

So in Jacobson's case, when he said, you know, I'm an individual and you're violating my liberty of belief and my freedom of action, the response in the majority opinion by Justice Harlan - who himself had been a Civil War veteran - was, we ask people during wartime to make much greater sacrifices. And this is like an invasion, this kind of situation, an epidemic of smallpox. He basically said that Jacobson had no more right to freedom in this area during an epidemic than an individual did to resist the draft during a war.

I think more important in the long run for getting the public around vaccination was the fact that vaccines became more safe. In 1902, 1903, right in the period we're talking about, Congress passed a law regulating biologics - so regulating vaccines and antitoxins, licensing36 manufacturers and imposing37 inspections38 and regulations on their production. This pretty clearly made vaccines more safe, and it eliminated a glaring contradiction in the law that had existed up to that point, where local and state governments were compelling people to get vaccinated even as they were doing nothing to ensure that vaccines were safe.

And then Jacobson settled the major constitutional questions, really, till this day.

ABDELFATAH: Yeah. I mean, is that the legacy39 of the Jacobson case?

WILLRICH: I think so. So today, the Jacobson decision is still good law. So when Mayor de Blasio declared a public health emergency and mandated40 that certain areas where measles had broken out - declared mandatory vaccinations in those areas under penalty of a $1,000 fine, that was perfectly41 consistent with the long tradition of public health law going back to Jacobson.

On the other hand, the epidemics of the early 20th century also have, I think, legacies42 in the ways that states have established vaccination laws that include significant protections for people with health risks or people with strong religious objections to compulsory vaccination or even, in some cases, simply philosophical43 exemptions44.

So state laws have embedded45 some of the anti-vaccination arguments in them even as they, particularly with schoolchildren, require children to get more and more vaccines.

ARABLOUEI: If another case like this were to come up before the court, do you think the dynamics46 are different today than they were when Jacobson came before the Supreme Court?

(SOUNDBITE OF MUSIC)

WILLRICH: They're certainly different. I mean, there's a - there is - the compulsory vaccination legislation of the early 20th century was passed during a period of broad sort of middle-class, at least, optimism about the state and what the state could do. This is the Progressive Era. And for some time now, we've been living in a kind of anti-Progressive Era, where neoliberal anti-statist arguments have, to a significant degree, carried the day at the highest levels of government. And so there's been a kind of - I don't know - attenuation47 of the idea that people are responsible for a society beyond their own concerns.

So I do see anti-vaccination arguments today as being kind of slender compared with the robust48 arguments of the early 20th century, arguments that were grounded in anti-racism and claims of equal protection or grounded in very strong personal liberty claims in an era of growing government authority or grounded in deeply held beliefs about parents' rights to take care of their children. The arguments that have been circulating in anti-vaccination literature in Brooklyn right now seem to be largely focused on pretty specious49 and disproven arguments about particular health risks allegedly associated with the MMR vaccine.

So I just think that we need to think very seriously about how to contend with the ongoing50 problem of scientific authority in a democracy. And that is certainly a legacy of the early 20th century.

(SOUNDBITE OF MUSIC)

ABDELFATAH: That's it for this week's show. I'm Rund Abdelfatah.

ARABLOUEI: I'm Ramtin Arablouei. And you've been listening to THROUGHLINE from NPR.

ABDELFATAH: Our show was produced by me and Ramtin.

ARABLOUEI: Our team includes...

JAMIE YORK, BYLINE51: Jamie York.

JORDANA HOCHMAN, BYLINE: Jordana Hochman.

LAWRENCE WU, BYLINE: Lawrence Wu.

N'JERI EATON, BYLINE: (Laughter) OK. Smizing (ph) and somber52 - N'Jeri Eaton.

ABDELFATAH: Thanks also to Anya Grundmann.

ARABLOUEI: And Chris Turpin.

ABDELFATAH: Our music was composed by Drop Electric.

ARABLOUEI: If you liked something you heard on the show or you have an idea, please write us at [email protected] or tweet us at @throughlineNPR.

ABDELFATAH: Thanks for listening.

(SOUNDBITE OF MUSIC)

ABDELFATAH: All right. Cool.


点击收听单词发音收听单词发音  

1 fixed JsKzzj     
adj.固定的,不变的,准备好的;(计算机)固定的
参考例句:
  • Have you two fixed on a date for the wedding yet?你们俩选定婚期了吗?
  • Once the aim is fixed,we should not change it arbitrarily.目标一旦确定,我们就不应该随意改变。
2 measles Bw8y9     
n.麻疹,风疹,包虫病,痧子
参考例句:
  • The doctor is quite definite about Tom having measles.医生十分肯定汤姆得了麻疹。
  • The doctor told her to watch out for symptoms of measles.医生叫她注意麻疹出现的症状。
3 vaccinate Iikww     
vt.给…接种疫苗;种牛痘
参考例句:
  • Local health officials then can plan the best times to vaccinate people.这样,当地的卫生官员就可以安排最佳时间给人们接种疫苗。
  • Doctors vaccinate us so that we do not catch smallpox.医生给我们打预防针使我们不会得天花。
4 vaccinated 8f16717462e6e6db3389d0f736409983     
[医]已接种的,种痘的,接种过疫菌的
参考例句:
  • I was vaccinated against tetanus. 我接种了破伤风疫苗。
  • Were you vaccinated against smallpox as a child? 你小时候打过天花疫苗吗?
5 scrambling cfea7454c3a8813b07de2178a1025138     
v.快速爬行( scramble的现在分词 );攀登;争夺;(军事飞机)紧急起飞
参考例句:
  • Scrambling up her hair, she darted out of the house. 她匆忙扎起头发,冲出房去。 来自《现代英汉综合大词典》
  • She is scrambling eggs. 她正在炒蛋。 来自《简明英汉词典》
6 vaccination bKGzM     
n.接种疫苗,种痘
参考例句:
  • Vaccination is a preventive against smallpox.种痘是预防天花的方法。
  • Doctors suggest getting a tetanus vaccination every ten years.医生建议每十年注射一次破伤风疫苗。
7 vaccinations ed61d339e2970fa63aee4b5ce757cc44     
n.种痘,接种( vaccination的名词复数 );牛痘疤
参考例句:
  • Vaccinations ensure one against diseases. 接种疫苗可以预防疾病。 来自《简明英汉词典》
  • I read some publicity about vaccinations while waiting my turn at the doctor's. 在医生那儿候诊时,我读了一些关于接种疫苗的宣传。 来自《简明英汉词典》
8 vaccine Ki1wv     
n.牛痘苗,疫苗;adj.牛痘的,疫苗的
参考例句:
  • The polio vaccine has saved millions of lives.脊髓灰质炎疫苗挽救了数以百万计的生命。
  • She takes a vaccine against influenza every fall.她每年秋季接种流感疫苗。
9 vaccines c9bb57973a82c1e95c7cd0f4988a1ded     
疫苗,痘苗( vaccine的名词复数 )
参考例句:
  • His team are at the forefront of scientific research into vaccines. 他的小组处于疫苗科研的最前沿。
  • The vaccines were kept cool in refrigerators. 疫苗放在冰箱中冷藏。
10 mandating c62e9d854cbfb789e6edc0c8d21324f7     
托管(mandate的现在分词形式)
参考例句:
  • Current requirements mandating that committees keep minutes are too general. 目前对委员会要保持详细记录的指令性要求,还是太过一般化了。
  • Mandating that workers who quit without permission forfeit a month's wages. 规定工人私自离岗将受到罚没一个月工资的处罚。
11 supreme PHqzc     
adj.极度的,最重要的;至高的,最高的
参考例句:
  • It was the supreme moment in his life.那是他一生中最重要的时刻。
  • He handed up the indictment to the supreme court.他把起诉书送交最高法院。
12 smallpox 9iNzJw     
n.天花
参考例句:
  • In 1742 he suffered a fatal attack of smallpox.1742年,他染上了致命的天花。
  • Were you vaccinated against smallpox as a child?你小时候打过天花疫苗吗?
13 nominal Y0Tyt     
adj.名义上的;(金额、租金)微不足道的
参考例句:
  • The king was only the nominal head of the state. 国王只是这个国家名义上的元首。
  • The charge of the box lunch was nominal.午餐盒饭收费很少。
14 epidemic 5iTzz     
n.流行病;盛行;adj.流行性的,流传极广的
参考例句:
  • That kind of epidemic disease has long been stamped out.那种传染病早已绝迹。
  • The authorities tried to localise the epidemic.当局试图把流行病限制在局部范围。
15 decided lvqzZd     
adj.决定了的,坚决的;明显的,明确的
参考例句:
  • This gave them a decided advantage over their opponents.这使他们比对手具有明显的优势。
  • There is a decided difference between British and Chinese way of greeting.英国人和中国人打招呼的方式有很明显的区别。
16 mandatory BjTyz     
adj.命令的;强制的;义务的;n.受托者
参考例句:
  • It's mandatory to pay taxes.缴税是义务性的。
  • There is no mandatory paid annual leave in the U.S.美国没有强制带薪年假。
17 contentious fa9yk     
adj.好辩的,善争吵的
参考例句:
  • She was really not of the contentious fighting sort.她委实不是好吵好闹的人。
  • Since then they have tended to steer clear of contentious issues.从那时起,他们总想方设法避开有争议的问题。
18 compulsory 5pVzu     
n.强制的,必修的;规定的,义务的
参考例句:
  • Is English a compulsory subject?英语是必修课吗?
  • Compulsory schooling ends at sixteen.义务教育至16岁为止。
19 violation lLBzJ     
n.违反(行为),违背(行为),侵犯
参考例句:
  • He roared that was a violation of the rules.他大声说,那是违反规则的。
  • He was fined 200 dollars for violation of traffic regulation.他因违反交通规则被罚款200美元。
20 hoax pcAxs     
v.欺骗,哄骗,愚弄;n.愚弄人,恶作剧
参考例句:
  • They were the victims of a cruel hoax.他们是一个残忍恶作剧的受害者。
  • They hoax him out of his money.他们骗去他的钱。
21 compliant oX8zZ     
adj.服从的,顺从的
参考例句:
  • I don't respect people who are too compliant.我看不起那种唯命是从,唯唯诺诺的人。
  • For years I had tried to be a compliant and dutiful wife.几年来,我努力做一名顺从和尽职尽职的妻子。
22 inflicted cd6137b3bb7ad543500a72a112c6680f     
把…强加给,使承受,遭受( inflict的过去式和过去分词 )
参考例句:
  • They inflicted a humiliating defeat on the home team. 他们使主队吃了一场很没面子的败仗。
  • Zoya heroically bore the torture that the Fascists inflicted upon her. 卓娅英勇地承受法西斯匪徒加在她身上的酷刑。
23 swell IHnzB     
vi.膨胀,肿胀;增长,增强
参考例句:
  • The waves had taken on a deep swell.海浪汹涌。
  • His injured wrist began to swell.他那受伤的手腕开始肿了。
24 relatively bkqzS3     
adv.比较...地,相对地
参考例句:
  • The rabbit is a relatively recent introduction in Australia.兔子是相对较新引入澳大利亚的物种。
  • The operation was relatively painless.手术相对来说不痛。
25 prophylactic aRLxb     
adj.预防疾病的;n.预防疾病
参考例句:
  • Vaccination and other prophylactic measures can be carried out.可以采取疫苗接种和其他预防措施。
  • The region began to use quinine successfully as a prophylactic.该地区开始成功地用奎宁作为预防剂。
26 discriminated 94ae098f37db4e0c2240e83d29b5005a     
分别,辨别,区分( discriminate的过去式和过去分词 ); 歧视,有差别地对待
参考例句:
  • His great size discriminated him from his followers. 他的宽广身材使他不同于他的部下。
  • Should be a person that has second liver virus discriminated against? 一个患有乙肝病毒的人是不是就应该被人歧视?
27 remarkably EkPzTW     
ad.不同寻常地,相当地
参考例句:
  • I thought she was remarkably restrained in the circumstances. 我认为她在那种情况下非常克制。
  • He made a remarkably swift recovery. 他康复得相当快。
28 legitimate L9ZzJ     
adj.合法的,合理的,合乎逻辑的;v.使合法
参考例句:
  • Sickness is a legitimate reason for asking for leave.生病是请假的一个正当的理由。
  • That's a perfectly legitimate fear.怀有这种恐惧完全在情理之中。
29 precedent sSlz6     
n.先例,前例;惯例;adj.在前的,在先的
参考例句:
  • Is there a precedent for what you want me to do?你要我做的事有前例可援吗?
  • This is a wonderful achievement without precedent in Chinese history.这是中国历史上亘古未有的奇绩。
30 swirling Ngazzr     
v.旋转,打旋( swirl的现在分词 )
参考例句:
  • Snowflakes were swirling in the air. 天空飘洒着雪花。 来自《现代汉英综合大词典》
  • She smiled, swirling the wine in her glass. 她微笑着,旋动着杯子里的葡萄酒。 来自辞典例句
31 discomfort cuvxN     
n.不舒服,不安,难过,困难,不方便
参考例句:
  • One has to bear a little discomfort while travelling.旅行中总要忍受一点不便。
  • She turned red with discomfort when the teacher spoke.老师讲话时她不好意思地红着脸。
32 epidemics 4taziV     
n.流行病
参考例句:
  • Reliance upon natural epidemics may be both time-consuming and misleading. 依靠天然的流行既浪费时间,又会引入歧途。
  • The antibiotic epidemics usually start stop when the summer rainy season begins. 传染病通常会在夏天的雨季停止传播。
33 exemption 3muxo     
n.豁免,免税额,免除
参考例句:
  • You may be able to apply for exemption from local taxes.你可能符合资格申请免除地方税。
  • These goods are subject to exemption from tax.这些货物可以免税。
34 conscientious mYmzr     
adj.审慎正直的,认真的,本着良心的
参考例句:
  • He is a conscientious man and knows his job.他很认真负责,也很懂行。
  • He is very conscientious in the performance of his duties.他非常认真地履行职责。
35 lexicon a1rxD     
n.字典,专门词汇
参考例句:
  • Chocolate equals sin in most people's lexicon.巧克力在大多数人的字典里等同于罪恶。
  • Silent earthquakes are only just beginning to enter the public lexicon.无声地震才刚开始要成为众所周知的语汇。
36 licensing 7352ce0b4e0665659ae6466c18decb2a     
v.批准,许可,颁发执照( license的现在分词 )
参考例句:
  • A large part of state regulation consists of occupational licensing. 大部分州的管理涉及行业的特许批准。 来自英汉非文学 - 行政法
  • That licensing procedures for projects would move faster. 这样的工程批准程序一定会加快。 来自辞典例句
37 imposing 8q9zcB     
adj.使人难忘的,壮丽的,堂皇的,雄伟的
参考例句:
  • The fortress is an imposing building.这座城堡是一座宏伟的建筑。
  • He has lost his imposing appearance.他已失去堂堂仪表。
38 inspections c445f9a2296d8835cd7d4a2da50fc5ca     
n.检查( inspection的名词复数 );检验;视察;检阅
参考例句:
  • Regular inspections are carried out at the prison. 经常有人来视察这座监狱。
  • Government inspections ensure a high degree of uniformity in the standard of service. 政府检查确保了在服务标准方面的高度一致。 来自《简明英汉词典》
39 legacy 59YzD     
n.遗产,遗赠;先人(或过去)留下的东西
参考例句:
  • They are the most precious cultural legacy our forefathers left.它们是我们祖先留下来的最宝贵的文化遗产。
  • He thinks the legacy is a gift from the Gods.他认为这笔遗产是天赐之物。
40 mandated b1de99702d7654948b507d8fbbea9700     
adj. 委托统治的
参考例句:
  • Mandated desegregation of public schools. 命令解除公立学校中的种族隔离
  • Britain was mandated to govern the former colony of German East Africa. 英国受权代管德国在东非的前殖民地。
41 perfectly 8Mzxb     
adv.完美地,无可非议地,彻底地
参考例句:
  • The witnesses were each perfectly certain of what they said.证人们个个对自己所说的话十分肯定。
  • Everything that we're doing is all perfectly above board.我们做的每件事情都是光明正大的。
42 legacies 68e66995cc32392cf8c573d17a3233aa     
n.遗产( legacy的名词复数 );遗留之物;遗留问题;后遗症
参考例句:
  • Books are the legacies that a great genius leaves to mankind. 书是伟大的天才留给人类的精神财富。 来自辞典例句
  • General legacies are subject to the same principles as demonstrative legacies. 一般的遗赠要与指定数目的遗赠遵循同样的原则。 来自辞典例句
43 philosophical rN5xh     
adj.哲学家的,哲学上的,达观的
参考例句:
  • The teacher couldn't answer the philosophical problem.老师不能解答这个哲学问题。
  • She is very philosophical about her bad luck.她对自己的不幸看得很开。
44 exemptions 98510082c83cd5526d8e262de8a35d2d     
n.(义务等的)免除( exemption的名词复数 );免(税);(收入中的)免税额
参考例句:
  • The exemptions for interpretive rules, policy statements, and procedural rules have just been discussed. 有关解释性规则、政策说明和程序规则的免责我们刚刚讨论过。 来自英汉非文学 - 行政法
  • A: The regulation outlines specific exemptions for some WPM. 答:该规定概述了某些木质包装材料的特定的例外情形。 来自互联网
45 embedded lt9ztS     
a.扎牢的
参考例句:
  • an operation to remove glass that was embedded in his leg 取出扎入他腿部玻璃的手术
  • He has embedded his name in the minds of millions of people. 他的名字铭刻在数百万人民心中。
46 dynamics NuSzQq     
n.力学,动力学,动力,原动力;动态
参考例句:
  • In order to succeed,you must master complicated knowledge of dynamics.要取得胜利,你必须掌握很复杂的动力学知识。
  • Dynamics is a discipline that cannot be mastered without extensive practice.动力学是一门不做大量习题就不能掌握的学科。
47 attenuation 690b726571f57e89aaf5ce5fa4e7da07     
n.变薄;弄细;稀薄化;减少
参考例句:
  • The attenuation distance and transmittance are connected together, they influence each other. 衰减距离attenuation)和能见度(transmittance)是联系在一起的,并相互影响。 来自互联网
  • Attenuation of light is in the form of absorption. 光是以吸收的形式衰减。 来自辞典例句
48 robust FXvx7     
adj.强壮的,强健的,粗野的,需要体力的,浓的
参考例句:
  • She is too tall and robust.她个子太高,身体太壮。
  • China wants to keep growth robust to reduce poverty and avoid job losses,AP commented.美联社评论道,中国希望保持经济强势增长,以减少贫困和失业状况。
49 specious qv3wk     
adj.似是而非的;adv.似是而非地
参考例句:
  • Such talk is actually specious and groundless.这些话实际上毫无根据,似是而非的。
  • It is unlikely that the Duke was convinced by such specious arguments.公爵不太可能相信这种似是而非的论点。
50 ongoing 6RvzT     
adj.进行中的,前进的
参考例句:
  • The problem is ongoing.这个问题尚未解决。
  • The issues raised in the report relate directly to Age Concern's ongoing work in this area.报告中提出的问题与“关心老人”组织在这方面正在做的工作有直接的关系。
51 byline sSXyQ     
n.署名;v.署名
参考例句:
  • His byline was absent as well.他的署名也不见了。
  • We wish to thank the author of this article which carries no byline.我们要感谢这篇文章的那位没有署名的作者。
52 somber dFmz7     
adj.昏暗的,阴天的,阴森的,忧郁的
参考例句:
  • He had a somber expression on his face.他面容忧郁。
  • His coat was a somber brown.他的衣服是暗棕色的。
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