while the Holy Roman Emperor was openly defied by his powerful subjects whenever it suited their fancy or their profit. 而神圣罗马帝国的皇帝则常常受到实力强大的臣属们出于自身利益的公然挑战。

To increase the misery of the masses of the people, the triangle of western Europe (look at page 128, please) was for ever exposed to attacks from three sides. 他们的称号皆有名无实。更增添人民痛苦的是，西欧三角地带一直受到来自三个方向的凶恶敌人的挑战：

On the south lived the ever dangerous Mohammedans. 南面是危险的穆罕默德信徒，他们占领着西班牙；

The western coast was ravaged by the Northmen. 西海岸常常受到北欧海盗的滋扰；

The eastern frontier(defenceless except for the short stretch of the Carpathian mountains) was at the mercy of hordes of Huns, Hungarians, Slavs and Tartars. 而东面除一小段喀尔巴阡山脉可以稍稍阻挡侵略者的马队，其它军事防御形同虚设，只能听任匈奴人、匈牙利人、斯拉夫人和鞑靼人的蹂躏 。

The peace of Rome was a thing of the remote past, a dream of the "Good Old Days" that were gone for ever. 罗马时代的升平景象已成为遥远的过去，人们只能在梦中回忆这一去不返的"好日子"。

It was a question of "fight or die," and quite naturally people preferred to fight. 现在欧洲面临的局势是，"要么战斗，要么死"！很自然，人们宁愿拿起武器。

Forced by circumstances, Europe became an armed camp and there was a demand for strong leadership. 出于环境的逼迫，公元1000年后的欧洲变成了一个大兵营，人们大声吁求强有力的领导者。

Both King and Emperor were far away. 可国王和皇帝离得太远，

The frontiersmen (and most of Europe in the year 1000 was "frontier") must help themselves. 解不了燃眉之急。于是，边疆居民（事实上，公元1000年的大部分欧洲地区都属于边疆）必须自救，

They willingly submitted to the representatives of the king  他们很情愿地服从国王的代表，

who were sent to administer the outlying districts, provided they could protect them against their enemies. 即由他派出来管理本地区的行政长官，只有他们才有能力保护属民免遭外敌的侵害。

Soon central Europe was dotted with small principalities, 很快，欧洲中部布满了大大小小的公国、侯国，

each one ruled by a duke or a count or a baron or a bishop, as the case might be, and organised as a fighting unit. 每一个国家根据不同的情形，分别由一位公爵、伯爵、男爵或主教大人担任统治者。