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Unit One
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Writing research reports for college or work is often found far more difficult than it need so be. The following article offers some excellent advice on how to make the task easier and the report more impressive and effective. Whether you write a research report for a college professor or for a demanding boss in your profession, the author's advice will put you well on your way to becoming a skillful report writer.
RESEARCH REPORTS FOR BUSINESS AND- THECNICAL WRITING
Wayne Losano
A surprising amount of one's time as a student and professional is spent reporting the results of one's research projects for presentation to teachers, managers, and clients. Indeed, without basic research skills and the ability to present research results clearly and completely, an individual will encounter many obstacles in school and on the job. The need for some research-writing ability is felt nearly equally by college students in all fields, engineering and science as well as business and the humanities. Graduate study often makes great demands on the student's research-writing skills, and most professions continue the demand; education, advertising1 and marketing2, economics and accounting3, science and engineering, psychology4, anthropology5, the arts, and agriculture may all require regular reporting of research data.
ELEMENTS OF THE RESEARCH PAPER
The standard research report, regardless of the field or the intended reader, contains four major sections. These sections may be broken down into a variety of subsections, and they may be arranged in a variety of ways, but they regularly make up the core of the report.
Problem Section. The first required section of a research report is the statement of the problem with which the research project is concerned. This section requires a precise statement of the underlying6 question which the researcher has set out to answer. In this same section there should be an explanation of the significance -- social, economic, medical, psychological, educational, etc. -- of the question; in other words, why the investigation7 was worth conducting. Thus, if we set out, for example, to answer the question "What is the effect of regular consumption of fast foods on the health of the American teenager?" we must explain that the question is thought to have significant relevance8 to the health of this segment of the population and might lead to some sort of regulations on such foods.
A frequent subsection of this problem section is a review of past research on the topic being investigated. This would consist of summaries of the contributions of previous researcher to the question under consideration with some assessment9 of the value of these contributions. This subsection has rhetorical usefulness in that it enhances the credibility of the researcher by indicating that the data presented is based on a thorough knowledge of what has been done in the field and, possibly, grows out of some investigative tradition.
Procedures Section. The second major section of the research report details, with as much data as possible, exactly how the study was carried out. This section includes description of any necessary equipment, how the subjects were selected if subjects were used, what statistical10 technique was used to evaluate the significance of the findings, how many observations were made and when, etc. An investigation of the relative effectiveness of various swim-strokes would have to detail the number of swimmers tested, the nature of the tests conducted, the experience of the swimmers, the weather conditions at the time of the test, and any other factors that contributed to the overall experiment. The goal of the procedures section is to allow the reader to duplicate the experiment if such were desired to confirm, or refute, your findings.
Results Section. The third, and perhaps most important, section of the research report is the presentation of the results obtained from the investigation. The basic rule in this section is to give all data relevant to the research question initially11 asked. Although, of course, one's natural tendency might be to suppress any findings which do not in some way support one's hypothesis, such dishonesty is antithetical to good research reporting in any field. If the experiments undertaken fail to prove anything, if the data was inadequate12 or contrary to expectations, the report should be honestly written and as complete as possible, just as it would be if the hypothesis were totally proven by the research.
Discussion Section. The final required section of a research report is a discussion of the results obtained and a statement of any conclusions which may be drawn13 from those results. Of primary interest in business and technical research reports is the validity of the results as the bases for company decisions: Will our planned construction project meet federal environmental guidelines and be approved for building? Will this new program attract skilled personnel to our company? Will this new oil recovery technique be financially feasible? Thus, the discussion section of the research report must evaluate the research results fully14: were they validly15 obtained, are they complete or limited, are they applicable over a wide range of circumstances? The discussion section should also point out what question remain unanswered and perhaps suggest directions for further research.
STYLE OF RESEARCH REPORTS
Research reports are considered formal professional communication. As such, there is little emphasis on a lively style, although, of course, there is no objection to writing that is pleasing and interesting. The primary goals of professional communication are accuracy, clarity, and completeness. The rough draft of any research report should be edited to ensure that all data is correctly presented, that all equipment is listed, that all results are properly detailed16. As an aid to the reader, headings indicating at least the major section of the report should be used, and all data should be presented under the proper headings. In addition to their function of suggesting to the reader the contents of each section, headings enhance the formal appearance and professional quality of the report, increase to some degree the writer's credibility by reflecting a logical and methodical approach to the reporting process, and eliminate the need for wordy transitional devices between sections.
Research data should be presented in a way that places proper emphasis on major aspect of the project. For different readers different aspects will take on different degrees of importance, and some consideration should be given to structuring research reports differently for different audiences. Management, for example, will be most concerned with the results of a research project, and thus the results section should be emphasized, probably by presenting it immediately after the problem section and before the procedures section. Other researchers would be most interested in the procedures section, and this should be highlighted in writing up research projects for publication in professional journals or for presentation at professional conferences. For non-technical readers and federal agencies, the implications of the results might be the most important consideration, and emphasis should be placed on the discussion of the report for this readership.
For additional clarity and emphasis, major results should be presented in a visual format17 -- tables, charts, graphs, diagrams -- as well as in a verbal one.
Beyond checking the report for clarity and accuracy in the presentation of technical data, the author of a research report should review for basic grammatical and mechanical accuracy. Short sentences are preferable to long in the presentation of complex information. Listings should be used to break up long passages of prose and to emphasize information. The research writer should try to use the simplest possible language without sacrificing the professional quality of the report. Although specialized18 terms can be used, pretentious19 jargon20 should be avoided. A finished research report should be readable and useful document prepared with the reader in mind.
CONCLUSION
Although we struggle with research reports in high school, dread21 them in college, and are often burdened by them in our professional live, learning to live comfortably with them is a relatively22 easy task. A positive attitude (i.e. one that seem the oral or written presentation of research results as of equal importance to the data-gathering process); an orderly approach which includes prewriting (i.e., before any actual research is done, the researcher should try to get down on paper as much about the subject under investigation as possible) and a formal research report structure as the framework for the investigation; and a reasonable approach to the actual writing process including editing for accuracy and clarity, will help one to produce effective research reports efficiently23.
NEW WORDS
presentation
n. the act of presenting; a talk, usu. to a group of people 提出，呈递；介绍，报告
client
n. a person who gets help or advice from a professional, e.g. a lawyer, an accountant, an architect, etc.; a person who buys goods or services 委托人，当事人，顾客
obstacle
n. sth. which prevents action, movement or success
marketing
n. the branch of business concerned with advertising, publicity24, etc. 营销
economics
n. the science that deals with money, goods and services and how they are related to each other 经济学
accounting
n. the art, practice or system of keeping, analyzing25 and interpreting business accounts 会计学
anthropology
n. the scientific study of man, including his physical characteristics, the origin and development of races, and the cultures, customs and beliefs of mankind 人类学
data
n. facts; information
element
n. a basic part of which sth. is made up
intend
vt. have in mind as a goal; plan
precise
a. clearly expressed; exact; accurate
significance
n. importance; meaning
economic
a. connected with trade, industry and the management of money; of economics
consumption
n. the act of consuming or an amount consumed 消费（量）
teenager
n. a young person of between 13 and 19 year old
relevance
n. importance or significance to the matter at hand
relevant
a.
segment
n. a part into which a whole is or can be divided; section
regulation
n. a law or a set of rules by which sth. is regulated
investigate
v. examine carefully in a search for facts, knowledge, or information
investigative
a.
summary
n. a short statement of the main points of a report, etc.
consideration
n. careful thought
assessment
n. the act of calculating or deciding the value or amount; the value or amount at which sth. is calculated
rhetorical
a. in using a style designed to impress or persuade 修辞（学）的
enhance
vt. make greater; improve 增加，提高
thorough
a. complete in all respects
tradition
n. ideas, customs, beliefs that have been passed down from generation to generation
description
n. the act of describing sth.; an account in words describing sth.
subject
n. a person or thing that is an object of study or experiment 实验对象，试验品
evaluate
vt. judge the value of
stroke
n. a single complete movement that is repeated often, as in swimming
factor
n. sth. that helps bring about a result 因素
overall
a. including everything; containing all
duplicate
vt. make an exact copy of
tendency
n. an inclination26 to think or behave in a certain way
hypothesis
n. idea or suggestion put forward as a staring point for reasoning or explanation 假设
antithetical
a. opposite to and unable to exist together with 对立（面）的
expectation
n. the act of expecting sth. or sth. that is expected
validity
n. truth or soundness; state of legally acceptable 正确（性）；合法（性），有效
valid
a.
construction
n. the act of constructing sth. or sth. that is constructed
federal
a. of the central government of the USA（美国）联邦政府的
guideline
n. (pl.) informal rules or instruction on how sth. should be done
approve
v. have a favorable opinion (of); give permission or consent (to)
skilled
a. having skill; requiring training and skill
personnel
n. all the people who work for a company or organization
applicable
a. that can be applied27 (to)
formal
a. (of words or style of writing or speaking) suitable for official occasions, serious writing, etc.
emphasis
n. special importance given to sth. 强调
objection
n. disapproval28 or opposition29; a reason for being against sth.
pleasing
a. likable; giving delight or enjoyment30
accuracy
n. the condition of being correct and exact.
clarity
n. clearness
draft
n. a rough sketch31, plan or outline 草稿，草图， 草案
edit
vt. prepare for publication by checking, correcting and revising 编辑
ensure
vt. make sure or certain; guarantee
aid
n. help; assistance
heading
n. a title at the top of a page, chapter, or letter
methodical
a. arranged or done according to a clear plan or method; orderly and systematic32
eliminate
vt. get rid of; remove
wordy
a. using too many words
transitional
a. of change from one condition, activity or topic to another
transition n.
publication
n. (the printing and selling of) books, newspapers and magazines
agency
n. (esp. AmE) department of a government or an international body
readership
n. the particular number or type of people who read a book, newspaper or magazine
visual
a. of, relating to, or used in seeing
format
n. the way or order in which sth. is arranged or presented
graph
n. a mathematical diagram which shows the relationship between two or more sets of numbers or measurement （曲线）图
diagram
n. a simple drawing consisting mainly of lines used, for example, to explain how a machine works 简图，图表
mechanical
a. concerned with small technical detail 技巧上的，细节上的
preferable
a. more desirable or suitable
listing
n. an act or instance of making a list
prose
n. ordinary written language, in contrast to poetry
sacrifice
vt. give up, usu. for obtaining sth. for oneself or for others
specialized
a. suitable or developed for one particular use
specialize
v. adapt for a particular purpose
pretentious
a. claming (in an unpleasant way) to have importance, artistic33 value or social rank that one does not really possess 矫饰的，做作的
jargon
n. technical words expert use to discuss their subjects 行话
readable
a. easy and enjoyable to read
orderly
a. arranged in good order, in a well organized and controlled way
framework
n. a structure that shapes or supports sth. 框架
Phrase & Expressions
on the job
while working; at work
break down into
separate into different kinds; divide into types
a variety (of)
a number or collection of different sorts of the same general type
make up
form as a whole; constitute
under consideration
being discussed; begin given thoughtful attention
as such
as being what is indicated or suggested; in itself or in themselves
take on
begin to have; assume
write up
rewrite in a fuller, better organized way; give a full written account of
get down
write, record (usu. quickly or with difficulty)
Proper Names
Wayne Losano
韦恩.洛桑诺
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advertising
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| n.广告业；广告活动 a.广告的；广告业务的 | |
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marketing
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| n.行销，在市场的买卖，买东西 | |
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accounting
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| n.会计，会计学，借贷对照表 | |
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psychology
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| n.心理，心理学，心理状态 | |
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anthropology
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| n.人类学 | |
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underlying
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| adj.在下面的，含蓄的，潜在的 | |
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investigation
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| n.调查，调查研究 | |
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relevance
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| n.中肯，适当，关联，相关性 | |
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assessment
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| n.评价；评估；对财产的估价，被估定的金额 | |
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statistical
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| adj.统计的，统计学的 | |
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initially
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| adv.最初，开始 | |
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inadequate
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| adj.(for,to)不充足的，不适当的 | |
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drawn
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| v.拖，拉，拔出；adj.憔悴的，紧张的 | |
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fully
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| adv.完全地，全部地，彻底地；充分地 | |
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validly
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| 正当地，妥当地 | |
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detailed
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| adj.详细的，详尽的，极注意细节的，完全的 | |
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format
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| n.设计，版式；[计算机]格式，DOS命令:格式化(磁盘)，用于空盘或使用过的磁盘建立新空盘来存储数据；v.使格式化，设计，安排 | |
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specialized
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| adj.专门的，专业化的 | |
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pretentious
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| adj.自命不凡的，自负的，炫耀的 | |
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jargon
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| n.术语，行话 | |
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dread
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| vt.担忧，忧虑；惧怕，不敢；n.担忧，畏惧 | |
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relatively
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| adv.比较...地，相对地 | |
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efficiently
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| adv.高效率地，有能力地 | |
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publicity
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| n.众所周知，闻名；宣传，广告 | |
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analyzing
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| v.分析；分析( analyze的现在分词 )；分解；解释；对…进行心理分析n.分析 | |
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inclination
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| n.倾斜；点头；弯腰；斜坡；倾度；倾向；爱好 | |
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applied
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| adj.应用的；v.应用，适用 | |
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disapproval
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| n.反对，不赞成 | |
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opposition
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| n.反对，敌对 | |
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enjoyment
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| n.乐趣；享有；享用 | |
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sketch
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| n.草图；梗概；素描；v.素描；概述 | |
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systematic
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| adj.有系统的，有计划的，有方法的 | |
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artistic
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| adj.艺术(家)的，美术(家)的；善于艺术创作的 | |
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